, text and illustrations to which

the spread of parchment.

Europe, and in Ancient Russia

elements (case, binding).

Since manuscripts are subject to deterioration

drafts of literary works

By the end of the 15th century, 35

handwritten by the author.

secular brotherhoods of scribes.

A handwritten book is a book

number of surviving European

(palimpsests). In the XIII-XV centuries in

only a few survived.

so expensive material